What is a Solar Cell and How is it Made?

A solar cell is a device made of semiconductor material like silicon or perovskite that converts sunlight into electricity. When photons from sunlight fall on the PV cells, they transfer their energy to electrons in the semiconductor material. The excited electrons move from their spot, leaving behind positively charged particles called holes. The freed electrons and holes move in opposite directions due to the cell’s internal p-n junction. This movement creates an electric current. 

Solar photovoltaic cells, also known as PV cells or photovoltaic cells, work on the photovoltaic principle – a process in which light falling on a semiconductor material generates an electric current. The solar systems seen on rooftops are made up of multiple solar cells joined together in solar panels. These panels work alongside components like solar inverters, mounting structures, and a grid (in the case of on-grid solar systems) or lithium batteries (in the case of off-grid solar systems) to form a full solar setup.

This comprehensive guide explains the working and construction of PV cells, their components, and practical applications, including the installation of solar PV systems in homes, housing societies, and commercial facilities. 

TL;DR Summary Box: Solar Cell Essential

Solar PV cells convert sunlight into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. They capture sunlight, which has photons. Those photons cause tiny particles called electrons within the solar cells to move, creating an electric current.

Let’s check out the most critical details about solar photovoltaic cells and how they are made, which you will explore in detail in this blog:

• Primary materials used in solar cells: Silicon (monocrystalline, bifacial, mono-PERC), thin-film technologies, and emerging materials like perovskites.
• Efficiency range: Bifacial solar cells can achieve up to 22.5% efficiency.
• Lifespan: Typically 25+ years with minimal performance degradation when solar panels are cleaned periodically.
• Applications: Rooftop solar for homes, commercial installations, housing societies, and utility-scale solar farms.
• Cost factors: The cost depends on various factors, including, but not limited to, manufacturing scale, material purity, cell efficiency, and installation complexity.

What is a Solar Photovoltaic Cell and its Core Components?

A solar photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of solar power systems. It changes sunlight into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. Since it has no moving parts, doesn’t need fuel, and doesn’t rely on chemical reactions, it’s a very dependable and eco-friendly way to produce electricity from sunlight.

A PV cell is made of semiconductor materials, usually silicon, layered in a way that creates an electric field when sunlight hits it. 

• Light particles called photons hit the surface of the cell: They give energy to electrons in the material. 
• This energy causes the electrons to break away: Electrons detach from their spot and begin flowing as an electric current (DC). This process occurs instantly and continues as long as there is sunlight.

What Are the Core Components of a Solar Cell?

Most solar photovoltaic cells are composed of silicon, which is used in over 95% of solar cells worldwide because it’s abundant, effective, and easily processed into cells. Along with silicon, PV cells also use other materials, such as metals for electrical connections, special coatings to manage light, and protective layers to enhance their durability in various weather conditions.

Let’s check out all core components in detail so it gets easier to understand how are solar cells manufactured in factories:

• P-type semiconductor layer: It has positive charge carriers called holes that help electrons move through the material. 
• N-type semiconductor layer: It contains negative charge carriers (electrons) for current generation.
• Junction interface: It builds an electric field between layers to push charges apart and start the flow of electricity.
• Anti-reflective coating: It helps the cell absorb more sunlight by reducing the amount of sunlight that bounces off its surface.
• Metal contacts: They collect and transfer electricity generated by the PV cells to external circuits/ wires.
• Protective encapsulation: It shields the solar cell from environmental damage and moisture.

How are Solar Cells Manufactured? Step-by-Step Process

Construction of PV cells involves many careful steps that turn raw silicon into PV devices that can turn sunlight into electricity for as long as 25 years. This process needs specialized machines, clean workspaces, and strict quality checks to ensure that every cell lasts a long time.

The process of making solar cells starts by purifying silicon until it reaches semiconductor grade, which means 99.9999% pure. Then it goes through steps like making wafers, processing the cells, and testing them at the end.

Let’s check out solar cell construction process from start to end: 

• Step 1: Raw silicon purification: Raw silicon is first cleaned and purified until it’s extremely pure (99.9999%). 
• Step 2: Ingot formation: The purified silicon is melted and slowly cooled. This cooling process results in the formation of solid blocks called ingots.
• Step 3: Wafer slicing: The solid silicon ingots from Step 2 are sliced into very thin pieces, known as wafers. This is done using sharp diamond wire saws.
• Step 4: Surface texturing: The surface of each silicon wafer is treated with special chemicals to make tiny patterns that help the wafer absorb more sunlight instead of reflecting it away.
• Step 5: Cleaning processes: The wafers go through several cleaning steps to remove any dust, oil, or leftover chemicals.
• Step 6: Diffusion: A layer of phosphorus is added to the wafer by heating it in a furnace. This forms an extra layer (n-type) that helps create the electric field needed to generate electricity.
• Step 7: Edge isolation: A laser cuts around the edges of the wafer to stop electricity from leaking out or short-circuiting. 
• Step 8: Anti-reflective coating: A thin coating is added to the wafer’s surface to reduce glare and enhance its ability to absorb more sunlight.
• Step 9: Screen printing: A special silver ink is printed on the front side of the wafer to collect electricity, and aluminum is printed on the back to carry it away.
• Step 10: Firing process: The wafer is heated to very high temperatures in a furnace. This is done to ensure the printed silver and aluminum stick together firmly and become permanent electrical connections.
• Step 11: Testing and sorting: Each solar cell is tested individually to see how well it performs. Then, the cells are sorted into groups based on their power output.

How Do Solar PV Cells Work?

Solar photovoltaic cells work by utilizing the photovoltaic effect, which was first discovered by French physicist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. When photons in the sunlight hit the electrons in the semiconductor material of the solar cell, they transfer their energy to electrons, making them move. The moving electrons leave behind empty spots called holes. When these electrons are directed through a wire, they create an electric current that can be used to power things.

Step-by-Step Working of a Solar Cell

When a PV cell is built, it forms an important electric field where the p-type and n-type materials meet. This field works like a one-way gate, pushing the freed electrons to move in just one direction. That movement creates direct current (DC) electricity.

Let’s check out how these cells work, step-by-step:

• Photon absorption: Light particles (photons) are absorbed by the semiconductor material in the solar cell.
• Electron excitation: Photons give energy to electrons in the material.
• Electrons break free: The energized electrons become loose and start moving, leaving behind tiny gaps called holes.
• Charges get pulled apart: An electric field inside the cell pushes electrons and holes in opposite directions.
• Electricity flows out: The metal parts on the solar cell collect the moving electrons and send them through a wire.

What Are the Different Types of Solar Cells?

Solar photovoltaic cells are categorized into three types based on the materials used in solar cells: crystalline silicon cells, thin-film cells, and new advanced materials. Each type has different versions, with unique features that make them a good fit for different weather conditions, available space, and budgets.

Let’s compare the different types quickly before exploring the different generations of solar cells.

Now, let’s check out the different types of solar cells based on generations. 

First-Generation Solar Cells

The first-generation solar cells are made of crystalline silicon. These are the traditional solar panels you often see in commercial rooftop systems and solar farms.

• Monocrystalline silicon: It’s a highly pure, single-crystal structure that costs more than polycrystalline silicon.
• Polycrystalline silicon: A multi-crystal structure providing a balance between performance and cost. It’s getting increasingly obsolete in India’s residential solar market due to poor efficiency.
• High-efficiency variants: PERC, bifacial, and heterojunction technologies for enhanced performance.

Second-Generation Solar Cells

Second-generation solar cells are mainly thin-film solar cells. Instead of using thick silicon wafers like first-generation cells, these use very thin layers of light-absorbing materials deposited on glass, plastic, or metal surfaces.

The most common materials used in the formation of thin-film solar cells are:

• Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
• Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS)
• Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
• Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Third-Generation Advanced Solar Cells

These are advanced solar cells that use new materials and mechanisms to convert sunlight into electricity more efficiently or in new ways. They are still mostly in the research or early commercial stages, but show great promise for the future.

The most promising ones include: 

• Perovskite cells
• Organic photovoltaics
• Quantum dot cells
• Multi-junction cells

What Are the Advantages of Solar Cells?

The main advantage of solar cells is that they rely on sunlight, a renewable source of energy. Moreover, when solar cells produce electricity from sunlight, they do not emit greenhouse gases and reduce electricity bills by up to 90%. 

Let’s check out all the major advantages of solar cells:

• They use a renewable energy source: The sun’s energy is free and unlimited, so solar power won’t run out.
• Zero operational emissions: Solar panels don’t release any harmful gases when they produce electricity.
• Modular scalability: You can power anything, from a single lightbulb to an entire city, with the right-sized solar system.
• Silent operation: Unlike other renewable energy technologies like windmills, solar panels generate electricity silently, with no noise at all.
• Long lifespan: Most panels come with 25- to 30-year warranties and only experience a slight loss of performance over time.
• More energy freedom: You rely less on electricity from the grid or expensive fuel imports. As a result, your electricity bills can drop by 90% or become zero altogether.

What Are the Disadvantages of Solar Cells?

The biggest limitation of using solar cells is that their performance is weather-dependent. Although power generation doesn’t completely stop under cloud cover, it gets reduced. 

Let’s understand all limitations of solar cells in detail:

• Weather dependence: Solar panels don’t work at their maximum efficiency on cloudy days. 
• Energy storage costs: If you want to store power for later, batteries can be expensive and tricky to set up.

While some argue that the initial investment for installing solar systems is high, when compared to the savings made over 25 years, solar is not an expense; it turns out to be an investment. Our team has made it super easy to get an estimate of how much money going solar will save for you. Use SolarSquare’s rooftop solar calculator for free. 

What Are the Applications of Solar Photovoltaic Systems?

Solar systems can be used in all kinds of ways, from small setups on home rooftops to giant solar farms that power whole cities. Plus, they help the country use less imported energy and take better care of the environment.

Residential applications of solar systems include: 

• Roof solar panels getting installed on homes and housing societies: Grid-tied systems help lower monthly electricity bills. When you choose SolarSquare to install solar at home, you get a money-back guarantee too. We’re India’s first and ONLY solar panel installation company that promises to pay you for the deficit units if our systems fail to generate the power we promised while installing solar at your place.
• Homes without grid access: Great for remote areas where people need full energy independence.
• Solar water heaters: Utilize sunlight to heat water, often used alongside solar electricity systems.
• Portable solar devices: Handy for camping, travel, or emergency situations when you need power on the go.

Commercial applications of solar systems include: 

• Office buildings: Help businesses save money on electricity and lower pollution.
• Manufacturing facilities: Provide power for machines and heavy equipment right at the site.
• Agricultural operations: Run solar water pumps and other farm tools using solar energy.

Conclusion

Solar photovoltaic cells are one of the most important inventions for meeting the world’s energy needs while helping the environment. They work by converting sunlight into electricity, and have come a long way from being just a lab experiment. 

Today, they power millions of homes and businesses not only in India but around the world. And the technology is still getting better, with new materials like perovskites and quantum dots offering hope for even more efficient solar panels in the future.

If you’re exploring the option to install roof solar panels at your home, book a free solar consultation call with SolarSquare now. There’s no pressure that you book solar with us – you book only if you’re satisfied. 

Still have questions about solar panel installation at home? Download our free solar handbook now. 

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FAQs

Q1. What is the difference between a solar cell and a photovoltaic cell?

Ans. There is no difference between the two. Solar cells and photovoltaic cells are used interchangeably.

Q2. What is the solar panel price in India?

Ans. The cost of installing rooftop solar at homes with a subsidy ranges from ~Rs. 95,000* in Lucknow for a 2 kW solar system to ~Rs. 2,92,000* in Bengaluru for a 5 kW solar system under the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana. *Disclaimer: The above-mentioned solar panel price in India is indicative as of 22nd July 2025 for the SolarSquare Blue 6ft variant. The final cost of solar panel installation depends on your DISCOM charges, product variant opted for, panel type, inverter type, mounting structure height, type of after-sales service, savings guarantee, roof height, etc. Prices are subject to change.

Q3. What are the three types of photovoltaic cells?

Ans. Based on generations, there are three types: First-generation solar cells: Includes monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and high-efficiency variants like Mono-PERC and bifacial technologies. Second-generation solar cells: These include thin-film solar technologies. Third-generation advanced solar cells: These include perovskite, organic photovoltaics, quantum dot, and multi-junction cells.

Q4. What is the principle of a photovoltaic cell?

Ans. A solar cell’s working principle is based on how semiconductors react to sunlight. It’s a sequential process: When sunlight hits the cell: Tiny light particles called photons give energy to the electrons in the material. If the photon has enough energy: It knocks the electron loose from its atom, creating a free electron and a hole where the electron used to be before coming loose. Inside the solar cell, there’s a built-in electric field: It’s present at the spot where two types of materials (called p-type and n-type) meet. This electric field pushes the electrons in one direction and the holes in the other. Movement of electrons begin: As the electrons move, they create an electric current in the form of DC, which is used to power household appliances after it’s converted into a usable form i.e. AC current.